Female Juvenile Delinquency free essay sample

What went wrong with â€Å"Sugar and Spice and all things nice†? Ariana Kalaitzaki S2760178 Griffith University Abstract This review addresses major questions around female juvenile delinquency, around which much contemporary research is oriented. These involve which factors are contributing to female juvenile delinquency and what causes female juveniles to display criminal behaviour in the first place. Theories and risk factors will be identified. Although research in the past decade has yielded considerable information about these questions, issues that need further investigation are also presented. Female juvenile delinquency: What went wrong with â€Å"Sugar and Spice and all things nice†? Until recently, girls have been virtually invisible in criminology studies and theories of delinquency (Belknap, 2001; Chesney-Lind amp; Belknap, 2004) however girls continue to be incarcerated for their criminal behaviours. The FBI reported that girls accounted for one in four arrests of young people in America in 1999 (FBI, 2002). According to Snyder amp; Sickmund (2006) females accounted for 29% of arrests and 15% of juveniles in custodial care in 2003. In 2007, females accounted for 17% of juvenile crime index arrests, 35% of juvenile property crime index arrests and 33% of juvenile disorderly conduct arrests (Puzzanchera, 2009). Furthermore, between 1985 and 2007, the increase in females with person offenses was 233% (Hockenberry, 2010) and in 2008 juvenile female arrests for simple assault increased 12%. The overall number of delinquent girls rose 96% between 1991 and 2003 (Snyder amp; Sickmund, 2006). All of this data indicates that girls’ involvement in the juvenile justice system has increased significantly over the past few decades. This highlighted increase in the arrest and detention of girls has brought new attention to the issue of female juvenile delinquency (Belknap, 2001) and research efforts have increased. In the past, research focused on males juveniles and the causes and effects of their behaviou (Shelden amp; Chesney-Lind, 1993). Violence and delinquency have been seen exclusively as male problems and females have been excluded from most studies (Artz, 1998) however in 2002 the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act was authorised to provide funds for research and gender specific programming for girls (Schaffner, 2004). The recent rise in female juvenile delinquency rates is evidently a concern; however the reasons as to why the delinquency rates have risen are not certain. What factors are contributing to female juvenile delinquency? What causes female juveniles to display criminal behaviour in the first place? Countless researchers have attempted to answer these questions and the answers vary greatly amongst them. This report will focus on juvenile delinquency among females by reviewing the current state of the literature that examines the roles of girls involved in illegal behaviour, and reasons for their participation in crime. This issue is significant because it is important to understand what influences females to engage in delinquent behaviour so that appropriate prevention, treatment and rehabilitation strategies can be identified (Widom, 2000). Theoretical Explanations for Female Delinquency Biological Determinism. Lombroso was the first to study female delinquency in 1895. He attributed the involvement of women in crime to biological abnormalities and traits present at birth which predetermined them to become criminals. Lombroso felt that women developed differently within sexual and racial limitations (Gora, 1982). Biological abnormalities and primitive traits characterised and helped define criminally prone females and this was referred to as Trait Theory (Siegel amp; Senna, 1997). Women were expected to be feminine, therefore masculine women were linked to criminal disposition and characteristics such as obesity, moles, dark hair and body hair were thought to be common in delinquent females (Gora, 1982). However, contemporaries of Lombroso had contrary notions. Cyril Burt attributed female delinquency to menstruation. William Healy and Augusta Bronner attributed female delinquency to abnormally masculine weight and Raffaele Garofaldo believed that a combination of biological, social and organic factors lead a person to commit crime (Siegel amp; Senna, 1997). After time, this biological view became scrutinised due to a lack of proper methodology (Siegel amp; Senna, 1997). Psychological Determinism. Psychological determinism focuses on the psychological traits that lead to delinquency such as mental and emotional disturbances. There are 3 common perspectives. The first is the psychoanalytic theory. Sigmund Freud proposed 3 dimensions of the human personality including the id, ego and superego. The id is the unrestrained, pleasure seeking component. The superegos purpose is to restrain the id using morals and the ego finds a balance between the id and superego (Siegel amp; Senna, 1997). Freud believed that an imbalance of these components led to a damaged personality, and in women, their deviance resulted from sexual maladjustment, gender conflict and neuroses (Gora, 1982). The second perspective is the behavioural theory whereby personality is developed through interactions with others (Siegel amp; Senna, 1997). Behaviourism is concerned with measurable events, such as the reaction a minor gets as a result of their behaviour. If behaviour is reinforced, the minor will be more likely to repeat the behaviour. The third perspective is cognitive theory which is concerned with the way individuals perceive the world around them. This theory explains that peoples’ reasoning develops from birth up until a person is older, eventually leading to a mature adult with logic (Siegel amp; Senna, 1997). Here, criminals are thought to be lower in their moral judgement development. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) explain delinquency in what is known as a general theory of crime which supports psychological determinism. Having low self-control is one reason why females may engage in criminal behaviour. Those who lack self-control tend to take more risks, and are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour (Burton, Cullen, Evans, Alfred amp; Dunnaway, 1998). Social positivism. Social positivism focuses on social and cultural factors which lead to delinquency (Lancelot amp; Blanc, 2002). Among the many social control explanations that may be applied to explain female delinquency is social bond theory (Gottfredson amp; Hirschi, 1990). This approach claims that an individual with strong ties to family, friends and work were insulated from criminal involvement. Cerkovich, Giordano and Rudolfo (2000) support social bond theory in their study which found that the strongest predictor of female criminal behaviour was living with a mate or being married. Furthermore, Anderson, Holmes and Ostresh (1999) study highlighted that attachment to school and peers significantly decreased girls severity of delinquency. A contrasting theory originates from Sutherland in 1929 and was referred to as differential association theory (Heidenson, 1985). This concept explains criminal behaviour as a result of exposure to others holding favourable definitions towards breaking the law. Interactions with criminal associates increased an individual’s chances of breaking the law. However, Sutherland ignored women in his theory and failed to elaborate on his analysis of sex differences as an explanation for a greater involvement of males in crime (Heidenson, 1985). For both social and psychological determinism, the theories are deficient in a number of ways. They fail to explain why most females that are exposed to high risk variables such as abuse and neglect do not become delinquents. They do not demonstrate a direct cause and effect. Anti-determinism. Anti-determinism perspective views crime as a result of choice and free will. Cesare Beconna and Jeremy Bentham supported this notion, believing that females who chose to break the law do so after weighing up the benefits and consequences of their actions (Barlow, 1993). They found that if the consequences were severe and surpass the benefits, the behaviour could be controlled. Barlow (1993) contrasts this view as he claims that females possess limited rationality and states that most people cannot have all of the information they need to evaluate possible outcomes when deciding to commit a crime. The anti-deterministic perspective is also deficient as it fails to address the effects of psychological problems and mental instabilities on females and does not take into account an individual’s intelligence, personality and drug use. Prevalent Risk Factors of Female Juvenile Delinquency Researchers have generated countless factors which are thought to contribute to female juvenile delinquency. One predominant contributing factor is mental health disorders. (Cocozza, 1997) study highlighted that large numbers of girls in the juvenile system have serious mental health problems with histories of abuse and neglect. The National Institute of Justice asserted that 57% of mildly to moderately depressed girls engaged in higher levels of aggressive behaviour, compared with 13% of those who were not depressed (Earls amp; Obeidallah, 1999). Veysey (2003) supports these findings, claiming that depressed girls are likely to experiences higher rates of delinquency, substance abuse and teen pregnancy. Bonham (2006) also maintains the notion that mental health disorders is a risk factor of female juvenile delinquency, whereby his study identified developmental issues, psychiatric mental health disorders and community aspects as key factors in delinquency. Furthermore, McCabe, Lansing, Garland and Hough (2002) study of delinquents found that female delinquents had higher rates of psychological symptoms and higher rates of DSM-IV symptoms. In opposition to these findings, another widely accepted factor believed to contribute to female juvenile delinquency is victimisation. Bartollas (2003) reported that the first step on the pathway to female offending is victimisation. Belknap (2001) and Giordano (2008) studies also produced findings that support this, claiming that the most prevalent risk factor experiences by girls in the juvenile system is abuse. Hennessey, Ford, Mahoney, Ko amp; Siegfried (2004) estimated that up to 70% of female adolescent delinquents have a history of child sexual abuse. This research points to a link between victimisation and delinquency; however data on victimisation of females in the juvenile justice system is collected with a lack of standardisation and consistency. The researcher’s data collection methods differ and the numbers vary significantly from study to study. The third biggest factor believed to contribute to female juvenile delinquency is substance abuse. Hawkins, Catalano and Miller (1992) state that substance abuse affects mental health disorders, motivations, cognitive processes and risky behaviour. Most research on substance abuse is on male samples; however there is evidence that substance abuse is highly correlated with disruptive behaviours of females’ as well. McClelland, Teplin and Abram (2004) found that substance abuse and early use in females is associated with more serious delinquency and longer delinquent careers, more risky behaviour and more serious criminal offenses. Acoca (1995) produces a reason which supports these findings in that substance abuse interrupts adolescents development of cognitive skills. Acoca (1995) believes that this lack of development of inductive and deductive reasoning impairs decision making and judgement skills of adolescents. Research has provided much information attempting to explain the causes for the involvement and rise in female delinquency. Beliefs amongst researchers as to why juvenile females become delinquent vary from biological to psychological to social to anti-deterministic. The central risk factors vary from mental health disorders to victimisation to substance abuse. Regardless of who supports which theory, it is certain that the involvement of females engaging in delinquent behaviour is now sparking a lot of attention. The growing number of females in the criminal system calls for better methods for addressing female delinquency through effective intervention strategies. Many researchers argue that female delinquents be place aside. Few programs are available to them and most are not suited to deal with their special needs. After an extensive review of the literature and existing research on female juvenile delinquency, it appears important to address the development of early identification and prevention strategies.